Language Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies

Definition of a Language Learning Strategy

The term language learning strategy has been defined by many researchers. Wenden and Rubin (1987:19) define learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information." Learning strategies are "techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information" (Wenden, 1987:6).

Richards and Platt (1992:209) state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information." Faerch Claus and Casper (1983:67) stress that a learning strategy is "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." According to Stern (1992:261), "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques." All language learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom. Since language classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest or easiest way to do what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is inescapable.

Foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques students use--often consciously--to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2 (Oxford, 1990b). For example, seek out conversation partners. groups word to be learned and then label each group. uses gesture to communicate in the classroom when the words do not come to mind. learn words by breaking them down into their components. consciously use guessing when reading. Strategies are the tools for active, self-directed involvement needed for developing L2 communicative ability (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown that the conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency.

The results of several "good language learner" studies suggest that successful foreign language (FL) learners use a variety of strategies to assist them in gaining command over new language skills (O'Malley, 1987). The selection of appropriate language learning strategies enable students to take responsibility for their own learning by enhancing learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction, necessary attributes for life-long learning (Oxford and Nyikos, 1989). By understanding the strategies that successful FL learners use, less competent learners should be able to improve their skills in a foreign language through training in strategies evidenced among those who are more successful.

However, if one of the characteristics of successful FL learners is that they use strategies more effectively, what language learning strategies are poor language learners using that impedes their progress? Knowing this would also help teachers to use language learning strategy training to help deficient students avoid ineffective strategies as well as incorporate those that aid in gaining proficiency.

Ellis (1994:555) concluded that "the strategies that learners elect to use reflect their general stage of L2 development." Oxford and Nyikos (1989:291) concur, saying, "Better language learners generally use strategies appropriate to their own stage of learning..." That is to say, that effective strategy use changes as the demands of language proficiency dictate. Although language learning strategies are perceived as positive tools, it may be that at a certain point, strategies cease to be an aid and contrarily turn into a crutch. For example, Oxford (1990) defines "switching to the mother tongue" as a compensation strategy that helps students overcome gaps in their language knowledge in order to keep a conversation moving. Although this strategy may be acceptable for a beginning student, it needs to be diminished as proficiency increases as to not hold the learner back in his FL acquisition process.

Thus, the research question that needs an answer is: What are the language learning strategies that less successful FL learners are using, and are these affected by the learner's FL proficiency level? In other words, is it possible that strategies used by beginning FL students are maintained even as their proficiency levels increase and demand the incorporation of others?

What Successful Language Learners Do

Outside of the language learning field, research comparing experts to novices indicates that experts use more systematic and useful problem-solving and native-language reading comprehension strategies. A similar finding occurs with more successful language learners as compared to less successful ones. Better language learners generally use strategies appropriate to their own stage of learning, personality, age, purpose for learning the language and type of language (Oxford and Nyikos, 1989).

Ellis (1994) summarizes the results of various "good language learner studies" into five major aspects of successful language learning. The first aspect of successful language learning is a concern for language form. Researchers found that good language learners treat language as a system by making effective crosslingual comparisons, analyzing the target language, and using reference books. Good language learners also pay attention to meaning, searching for it in the L2 data they are exposed to and trying to engage in real communication by seeking out opportunities for natural language use. Thirdly, good language learners show active involvement in language learning. Rather than developing dependence upon the teacher, they take charge of their own learning by identifying and pursuing goals and by trying to introduce new topics into conversations. The fourth characteristic concerned their metacognitive awareness of the learning process. Successful FL learners are thoughtful and aware of themselves, make conscious decisions and follow their own preferred learning style. These are the learners who have the ability to talk effectively about their language learning because they have a well-developed metalanguage with which to do it. Finally, Ellis concluded that successful learners are flexible and appropriately use learning strategies, demonstrating the ability to choose those that were appropriate for particular tasks.

O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also undertook investigations comparing effective and ineffective students in their use of language learning strategies. More effective students used a greater variety of strategies in all the strategy groups, and used them in ways that helped the students complete the language task successfully. Less effective students not only had fewer strategy types in their repertoires but also frequently used strategies that were inappropriate to the task or that did not lead to successful task completion.

Studying good FL learners provides insight into how strategies affect language learning and what kinds of behavior are associated with successful language acquisition. By comparing the strategies used by successful and unsuccessful FL learners, it may be possible to not only teach those strategies that are effective, but also avoid those that impede progress, particularly those strategies that are effective at the beginning levels of language acquisition but transform into stumbling blocks at higher levels of proficiency.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF L2 LEARNING STRATEGIES

Oxford (1990a) synthesized existing research on how the following factors influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second language.

"Motivation." More motivated students tended to use more strategies than less motivated students, and the particular reason for studying the language (motivational orientation, especially as related to career field) was important in the choice of strategies.

"Gender." Females reported greater overall strategy use than males in many studies (although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy).

"Cultural background." Rote memorization and other forms of memorization were more prevalent among some Asian students than among students from other cultural backgrounds. Certain other cultures also appeared to encourage this strategy among learners.

"Attitudes and beliefs." These were reported to have a profound effect on the strategies learners choose, with negative attitudes and beliefs often causing poor strategy use or lack of orchestration of strategies.

"Type of task." The nature of the task helped determine the strategies naturally employed to carry out the task.

"Age and L2 stage." Students of different ages and stages of L2 learning used different strategies, with certain strategies often being employed by older or more advanced students.

"Learning style." Learning style (general approach to language learning) often determined the choice of L2 learning strategies. For example, analytic-style students preferred strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule-learning, and dissecting words and phrases, while global students used strategies

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